Early brain development from prenatal stage to age two: Influence of environmental factors, caregiver bonding, and social interaction

This review explores early brain development from the prenatal stage through age two, emphasizing the influence of environmental factors, caregiver bonding, and social interaction on neurodevelopmental outcomes. Drawing on research from neuroscience, developmental psychology, and paediatrics, it examines the dynamic relationship between genetic predispositions and external influences such as maternal nutrition, mental health, socioeconomic status, and exposure to toxins. The review outlines key neurodevelopmental processes, including neural proliferation, synaptogenesis, myelination, and critical periods of plasticity. It further considers how early caregiving environments and social interactions shape emotional regulation and cognitive development. The findings highlight the vital role of responsive caregiving, enriched learning environments, and early interventions in supporting healthy development. The review concludes with recommendations for integrated public health strategies, policy reform, and targeted support for vulnerable populations to promote optimal developmental outcomes in early childhood.